Mobilized News · History + systems

Understand the past. Follow the connections.

Six empires.
One interconnected history.

Who controlled what, and when? Explore the territories, the forms of control and the paths toward independence.

1400s–1900s · Six European powers · A connected reference

Begin with the distinction

Colonialism began before the factory age.

Portugal and Spain expanded overseas from the 1400s. The first Industrial Revolution is usually dated approximately 1760–1840. Much of the European conquest of Africa’s interior came later, during the industrial era of the late 1800s.

Start anywhere. Follow the connections.

Explore the colonial powers.

Open a card to explore where it ruled, key dates, how control worked and what the dates mean. Each card follows the same five-part pathway.

Atlantic + Indian Ocean networksPortugalBrazil, African colonies and ports across Asia.ExploreClose

01 · 1400s–1900s

Portugal

An early maritime empire connecting Atlantic plantation colonies with ports and possessions across the Indian Ocean.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

12 territory groups

1500–1822

Brazil

Claimed in 1500; sustained colonization from the 1530s. Independence declared in 1822.

1570s–1975

Angola

Colonial foothold around Luanda from the 1570s; conquest spread inland much later. Independent in 1975.

Early 1500s–1975

Mozambique

Coastal establishments preceded extensive inland rule. Independent in 1975.

1400s contacts; colony to 1974

Guinea-Bissau

Trading presence from the 1400s; separate colony from 1879. Independence declared in 1973 and recognized by Portugal in 1974.

Later 1400s–1975

Cabo Verde; São Tomé and Príncipe

Settlement and colonization from the later 1400s. Both became independent in 1975.

1482–1637 at Elmina

Elmina and other posts in Ghana

Portugal established Elmina in 1482; the Dutch captured it in 1637. These were coastal possessions, not control of all present-day Ghana.

1500s–1961

Goa, Daman and Diu · India

Possessions acquired at different dates during the 1500s; Goa captured in 1510. Portuguese rule ended in 1961.

1500s–1658

Coastal Sri Lanka

Control developed along the coast during the 1500s. Remaining Portuguese possessions fell to the Dutch in 1658; the inland Kingdom of Kandy remained independent.

1511–1641

Malacca · Malaysia

Captured by Portugal in 1511 and taken by the Dutch in 1641.

1500s presence; administration 1702–1975

Timor-Leste

Portuguese presence from the 1500s; formal administration from 1702. Effective Portuguese administration ended in 1975. Timor-Leste became independent in 2002 after Indonesian occupation and a UN transition.

1557–1999

Macau · China

A settlement permitted by China from 1557, with changing legal arrangements over time. Portuguese administration ended in 1999.

1400s–1700s, varying by place

Other fortified ports and enclaves

Portugal also held forts or ports in Morocco, East Africa, the Persian Gulf and the Indonesian archipelago. Control was often limited to coastal sites.

Key dates

1415Ceuta captured in North Africa.
1500Brazil claimed; sustained colonization followed in the 1530s.
1510–1511Goa captured, followed by Malacca.
1822Brazil declares independence.
1974–1975African colonies gain recognized independence.
1999Portuguese administration of Macau ends.

How control worked

Rule combined royal administration, fortified ports, trade monopolies and territorial colonies. Coastal footholds often preceded wider conquest by centuries.

Read the dates carefully

Portuguese contact in the 1400s did not mean immediate rule over entire modern countries. Macau began as a settlement permitted by China; Timor-Leste’s later independence followed Indonesian occupation.

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Compare neighboring territories and changes of administration.

Sources for this overview

The Americas + PacificSpainAmerican territories, the Philippines and African possessions.ExploreClose

02 · 1400s–1900s

Spain

A territorial empire across much of the Americas, with additional possessions in Asia, the Pacific and Africa.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

12 territory groups

1500s–1810s/1820s

Venezuela; Colombia; Ecuador

Conquest and settlement from the 1500s. Spanish power was largely defeated during the independence wars of the 1810s and 1820s.

1530s–1820s

Peru; Bolivia

Conquest of the Inca realm began in the 1530s. Spanish armies suffered decisive defeat in 1824; Bolivia became independent in 1825.

1500s onward; rule ends in stages

Chile; Argentina; Paraguay; Uruguay

Settlement developed at different dates; most Spanish rule ended during the 1810s–1820s. Uruguay later passed through Portuguese and Brazilian rule before independence in 1828.

1500s–1821

Mexico and much of Central America

Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica came under Spanish rule. Mexico and most of Spanish Central America became independent in 1821. Panama also broke with Spain in 1821.

1500s–1800s, varying by territory

Parts of today’s United States

Spain claimed or governed territories including Florida and parts of the Southwest and Pacific coast. Boundaries, actual control and dates of transfer varied.

1490s/1500s onward

Cuba; Puerto Rico; Hispaniola; Jamaica; Trinidad

Jamaica passed to England in 1655 and Trinidad to Britain in 1797. Spanish rule over Cuba and Puerto Rico ended in 1898. Hispaniola experienced several changes of control.

1565–1898

Philippines

Colonization began in 1565. Spain ceded the islands to the United States in 1898.

1626–1642

Northern Taiwan

A limited colonial possession in the north of the island; captured by the Dutch in 1642.

1600s–1898/1899

Guam and other Micronesian islands

Guam was colonized from 1668 and ceded to the United States in 1898. Spain sold other remaining Micronesian possessions to Germany in 1899.

1778–1968

Equatorial Guinea

Territories acquired from Portugal in 1778; effective administration expanded later. Independent in 1968.

Protectorate 1912–1956; Ifni 1934–1969

Parts of Morocco; Ifni

The northern Moroccan protectorate ended in 1956; some southern holdings remained longer. Spain occupied Ifni in 1934 and returned it to Morocco in 1969.

1884–1976

Western Sahara

Spanish colonial claims began in 1884; withdrawal was completed in 1976. Withdrawal did not settle sovereignty. Western Sahara remains on the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.

Key dates

1492Sustained Spanish expansion begins in the Caribbean.
1494Treaty of Tordesillas divides Spanish and Portuguese overseas claims.
1500sConquests expand across mainland America.
1810s–1820sMost mainland American territories secure independence.
1898–1899Spain loses its remaining major Caribbean and Pacific possessions.
1968–1976Equatorial Guinea becomes independent; Spain later withdraws from Western Sahara.

How control worked

Spanish rule used viceroyalties, provincial officials, military conquest and colonial settlements. Authority varied considerably, and many Indigenous communities resisted or remained beyond effective administration.

Read the dates carefully

The end of Spanish rule could lead to independence or transfer to another empire. Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines did not share the same political outcome after 1898.

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Compare neighboring territories and changes of administration.

Sources for this overview

Company rule + maritime tradeThe NetherlandsIndonesia, Suriname, the Cape and strategic coastal holdings.ExploreClose

03 · 1600s–1900s

The Netherlands

Dutch expansion relied heavily on chartered companies with the power to trade, administer territory, build forts and wage war.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

13 territory groups

Early 1600s–1942; contested return 1945–1949

Indonesia

Company possessions expanded gradually, followed by Dutch state administration around 1800. Japanese occupation began in 1942. Independence was declared in 1945; sovereignty transferred in 1949 after a war against Dutch attempts to restore control.

Retained to 1962

Western New Guinea

The Netherlands retained western New Guinea after the 1949 transfer. Dutch administration ended in 1962, followed by UN administration and transfer to Indonesia in 1963.

1640s–1796

Coastal Sri Lanka

Conquest began in the 1640s; the Dutch took the remaining Portuguese possessions in 1658. British conquest ended Dutch rule in 1796. Inland Kandy remained independent.

1641–1825, with interruptions

Malacca · Malaysia

Captured from Portugal; periods of British occupation interrupted Dutch administration. The final transfer to Britain followed the 1824 treaty.

1624–1662

Parts of Taiwan

The principal Dutch colony began in 1624. Dutch forces also took the Spanish northern possessions in 1642.

1652–1795; 1803–1806

Cape region · South Africa

The Cape settlement began in 1652. Britain occupied it in 1795; Dutch administration returned in 1803 and ended with British conquest in 1806.

Late 1500s–1872

Forts and coastal possessions · Ghana

Elmina was captured from Portugal in 1637. Remaining Dutch coastal possessions were transferred to Britain in 1872.

1667–1975, with interruptions

Suriname

Dutch rule was interrupted by British occupations. Suriname became independent in 1975.

1600s–1814

Parts of present-day Guyana

Dutch settlements developed from the 1600s. Territories ultimately ceded to Britain in 1814 later formed British Guiana.

1630–1654

Northeastern Brazil

The principal Dutch occupation lasted from 1630 to 1654.

1624–1664; 1673–1674

New Netherland · including New York

English conquest ended the main Dutch colonial period in 1664; the Dutch briefly recovered the territory in 1673–1674.

Possessions acquired mainly in the 1600s

Dutch Caribbean islands

Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, Sint Maarten, Saba and Sint Eustatius had changing administrations and later constitutional arrangements, particularly from 1954 onward.

1600s onward, varying by post

Trading posts in India and Japan

Dutch commercial posts operated within or alongside existing states. Their presence should not be read as Dutch colonization of all India or Japan.

Key dates

1602Dutch East India Company founded.
1624–1662Principal Dutch colonial presence in Taiwan.
1630–1654Dutch occupation of northeastern Brazil.
1652Cape settlement established.
1945–1949Indonesia declares independence; war precedes the transfer of sovereignty.
1962 / 1975Dutch administration ends in western New Guinea; Suriname later becomes independent.

How control worked

The Dutch East India Company and Dutch West India Company exercised commercial, political and military authority. Company possessions later passed to state administration.

Read the dates carefully

Holland is part of the Netherlands. A Dutch trading post did not mean rule over a whole country. Dutch exploration of Australia did not establish sustained Dutch colonial administration there.

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Compare neighboring territories and changes of administration.

Sources for this overview

Two major overseas empiresFranceThe Americas, North and West Africa, Indochina and the Pacific.ExploreClose

04 · 1600s–1900s

France

An earlier empire centered on the Americas and trading posts was followed by extensive African and Asian conquest in the nineteenth century.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

17 territory groups

1604/1608–1763

Parts of Canada

Permanent settlements began in 1604–1608. Most remaining mainland possessions were ceded to Britain in 1763.

1682 claim; transfers in 1762–1763 and 1803

Louisiana and Mississippi basin

Claimed in 1682; divided between Spain and Britain in 1762–1763. France later recovered Spanish Louisiana and sold it to the United States in 1803.

1600s–1804

Haiti · formerly Saint-Domingue

French settlement developed during the 1600s; Spain recognized French possession in 1697. Haiti became independent in 1804 after revolution.

1600s onward; departmental status in 1946

Guadeloupe; Martinique; French Guiana

Colonization began during the 1600s. The change to French overseas departments in 1946 was not independence.

1830–1962

Algeria

Invasion began in 1830; conquest continued over subsequent decades. Independent in 1962.

1881–1956; 1912–1956

Tunisia; most of Morocco

Tunisia was a protectorate from 1881 and Morocco from 1912. Both became independent in 1956.

Earlier footholds; major conquest in the 1800s–1900s

French West Africa · eight territories

Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Benin and Niger. Guinea became independent in 1958; the other seven in 1960. The federation existed from 1895 to 1958.

Late 1800s–1960

French Equatorial Africa · four territories

Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic and Chad. Grouped as French Equatorial Africa from 1910 to 1958; all four became independent in 1960.

World War I–1960

French-administered Cameroon and Togo

Occupied during World War I; later mandates and trust territories. French-administered territories became independent in 1960.

1896–1960

Madagascar

Annexed in 1896; independent in 1960. Earlier French interventions preceded annexation.

1800s–1975, varying by island

Comoros

French control developed at different dates during the 1800s. Independence in 1975 excluded Mayotte.

1862 foothold–1977

Djibouti

A foothold was acquired at Obock in 1862; broader colonial administration followed. Independent in 1977.

1858 onward; independence in 1953–1954

Vietnam; Cambodia; Laos

Expansion into Vietnam began in 1858; Cambodia became a protectorate in 1863 and Laos in 1893. Cambodia and Laos became independent in 1953; French colonial power in Vietnam was defeated in 1954. Wartime occupation interrupted French rule.

1600s–1954 administration; legal transfer in 1962

Enclaves in India · including Puducherry

Small possessions acquired from the 1600s. Remaining enclaves transferred administratively to India in 1954; legal transfer completed in 1962.

Around 1920–1946

Syria; Lebanon

French administration followed World War I. Independence developed during the 1940s; remaining French troops withdrew in 1946.

1853; protectorate from 1842 and annexation in 1880

New Caledonia; Tahiti and French Polynesian islands

New Caledonia was annexed in 1853. Tahiti became a protectorate in 1842 and was annexed in 1880. These dates mark different forms of incorporation.

1906–1980

Vanuatu · formerly New Hebrides

Joint French–British administration; independent in 1980.

Key dates

1604–1608Permanent settlements begin in what is now Canada.
1763Most remaining mainland North American possessions are ceded.
1804Haiti becomes independent after revolution.
1830France invades Algeria.
1953–1962Indochinese, North African and many other African territories become independent.
1975–1980Comoros, Djibouti and Vanuatu gain independence.

How control worked

French rule took several forms: colonies, protectorates, colonial federations and international mandates. Settlement and conquest expanded at different speeds in different territories.

Read the dates carefully

French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa were federations, not single modern countries. The Republic of the Congo is different from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which was under Belgian rule.

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Sources for this overview

From Atlantic colonies to global empireEngland / BritainSouth Asia, Africa, Australia, the Americas and treaty states.ExploreClose

05 · 1600s–1900s

England / Britain

England’s colonial possessions passed to Great Britain after the 1707 union with Scotland, and later to the United Kingdom.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

24 territory groups

1757 expansion–1947

Much of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh

Territorial power expanded after 1757; Crown rule replaced company rule in 1858. British India was partitioned into independent India and Pakistan in 1947. Bangladesh became independent from Pakistan in 1971.

1796–1948; protectorate 1887–1965

Sri Lanka; Maldives

Sri Lankan coastal possessions were acquired in 1796; inland Kandy annexed in 1815; independence in 1948. The Maldives protectorate lasted from 1887 to 1965.

Conquest 1824–1886; rule to 1948

Myanmar · formerly Burma

Conquered in stages during three wars; independent in 1948. Japanese occupation interrupted British rule during World War II.

Late 1700s–1900s, varying by territory

Malaysia; Singapore; Brunei

Expansion began with Penang in 1786 and Singapore in 1819. Malaya became independent in 1957; British Borneo territories joined Malaysia in 1963. Singapore left Malaysia in 1965. Brunei’s protectorate ended in 1984.

1841/1842–1997

Hong Kong · China

Occupied in 1841 and ceded in 1842; territory expanded later. British administration ended in 1997, interrupted by Japanese occupation in World War II.

After World War I–1932/1946/1948

Iraq; Palestine; Transjordan

British administration followed World War I. Iraq became independent in 1932 and Jordan in 1946; the Palestine Mandate ended in 1948.

1839–1967

Aden and surrounding protectorates

Aden was occupied in 1839. British withdrawal and South Yemeni independence followed in 1967.

Treaties in the 1800s–1900s; ended 1961/1971

Kuwait; Bahrain; Qatar; future UAE territories

Treaty-based protection differed from ordinary colonial administration. Kuwait became independent in 1961; Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates in 1971.

Earlier coastal posts; wider rule mainly in the 1800s

Ghana; Nigeria; Sierra Leone; The Gambia

Independence: Ghana in 1957; Nigeria in 1960; Sierra Leone in 1961; The Gambia in 1965.

Protectorates in the 1890s–1962/1963

Kenya; Uganda

Uganda became independent in 1962; Kenya in 1963.

World War I–1961; protectorate 1890–1963

Tanganyika; Zanzibar · now Tanzania

Tanganyika was occupied during World War I and later administered under mandate; independent in 1961. Zanzibar became independent in 1963.

1884–1960

British Somaliland · northern Somalia

A protectorate from 1884; joined the former Italian-administered territory to form Somalia in 1960.

1882 occupation; Sudan 1899–1956

Egypt; Sudan, including today’s South Sudan

Egypt was occupied in 1882 and formally independent in 1922, with continuing British military influence. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was administered from 1899 until independence in 1956.

Cape occupations 1795 and 1806; Union in 1910

South Africa

Further conquests followed the Cape occupations. The Union of South Africa became a dominion in 1910; constitutional independence developed in stages. Majority democratic rule was a separate, later transition.

Late 1800s–1964/1980

Zambia; Malawi; Zimbabwe

Zambia and Malawi became independent in 1964; Zimbabwe in 1980. Rhodesia’s settler government exercised unrecognized independence during 1965–1979, when Britain lacked effective control.

Protectorates in the 1800s–early 1900s

Botswana; Lesotho; Eswatini

Botswana and Lesotho became independent in 1966; Eswatini in 1968.

1810–1968/1976

Mauritius; Seychelles

Captured from France in 1810. Mauritius became independent in 1968; Seychelles in 1976.

1803 lasting occupation; cession 1814–1966

Guyana

Former Dutch territories came under lasting British control in 1803 and were formally ceded in 1814. Independent in 1966.

Colonization from 1788; independence in stages

Australia

Six colonies federated in 1901. Major constitutional independence milestones followed in 1942 and 1986. Dutch exploration did not establish sustained Dutch colonial administration. Colonization displaced existing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies.

British sovereignty asserted in 1840

New Zealand

Dominion status followed in 1907; legislative independence developed subsequently.

Late 1800s–1970s

Fiji; Solomon Islands; Kiribati; Tuvalu

Colonies or protectorates established during the late 1800s; independence during the 1970s.

1607–1776/1783

Thirteen colonies · original United States

English settlement from 1607. Independence declared in 1776 and recognized by Britain in 1783.

Expansion in 1713 and 1763; independence in stages

Canada

British possessions expanded substantially in 1713 and 1763. Confederation in 1867 was followed by later constitutional independence milestones.

1600s onward; most independence in 1960s–1980s

Belize and former British Caribbean colonies

Includes Jamaica, Barbados, Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago, and several other Caribbean islands. Territories were acquired or settled at different dates and followed different paths to independence.

Key dates

1607Jamestown establishes a lasting English foothold in North America.
1757 / 1858Company territorial power expands in India; Crown rule later replaces company rule.
1763Britain gains major French North American possessions.
1788Colonization begins in Australia.
1947–1948India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon become independent.
1950s–1997Further decolonization; British administration of Hong Kong ends in 1997.

How control worked

The empire included company territories, Crown colonies, protectorates, mandates, treaty states and self-governing dominions. No single administrative model applied everywhere.

Read the dates carefully

Australia’s federation in 1901 and Canada’s Confederation in 1867 were steps in longer constitutional processes. India’s 1947 partition and Bangladesh’s 1971 independence were different events.

Follow the connections

Compare neighboring territories and changes of administration.

Sources for this overview

Central Africa + the industrial eraBelgiumThe Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.ExploreClose

06 · 1885–1962

Belgium

Belgium became independent in 1830. Its principal colonial expansion came later in the industrial era.

01 · Where it ruled 02 · Key dates 03 · How control worked 04 · Read the dates 05 · Follow connections

Where it ruled

2 territory groups

1885–1908; Belgian colony 1908–1960

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Congo Free State under Leopold II personally from 1885 to 1908. Belgian state colony from 1908 to 1960; independent in 1960.

1916–1962

Rwanda; Burundi

Belgian military occupation began in 1916. The territory of Ruanda-Urundi was subsequently administered under a League of Nations mandate and UN trusteeship. Both countries became independent in 1962.

Key dates

1830Belgium becomes independent in Europe.
1885Congo Free State established under Leopold II personally.
1908The Belgian state takes over the Congo.
1916Belgian forces occupy Rwanda and Burundi.
1960The Congo becomes independent.
1962Rwanda and Burundi become independent.

How control worked

The Congo Free State was ruled by Leopold II personally, distinct from the later Belgian state colony. Rwanda and Burundi were subsequently administered under a mandate and then UN trusteeship.

Read the dates carefully

The Congo Free State (1885–1908) and Belgian Congo (1908–1960) were different administrations. Today’s Democratic Republic of the Congo should not be confused with the neighboring Republic of the Congo, formerly under France.

Follow the connections

Compare neighboring territories and changes of administration.

Sources for this overview

Congo, Rwanda and Burundi · State Archives of Belgium (opens in a new tab)

From expansion to independence

Follow the timeline.

Open an era to see major turning points. The timeline covers all six powers and stays separate from territory search filters.

1415–1652Maritime expansionPorts, plantations, conquest and chartered companies.

1415
Portugal captures Ceuta
An early milestone in Portuguese overseas expansion.
1482
Elmina is established
Portugal builds a fortified foothold on the coast of present-day Ghana.
1492
Spanish expansion in the Caribbean
Columbus’s expedition initiates sustained Spanish colonial expansion.
1494
Treaty of Tordesillas
Spain and Portugal divide overseas claims between themselves without the consent of the peoples concerned.
1500
Portugal claims Brazil
Sustained colonization follows from the 1530s.
1500s
American conquest and Asian ports
Spain expands across the Americas; Portugal develops African and Asian possessions.
1600–1602
Chartered companies are founded
The English East India Company and Dutch East India Company become major instruments of empire.
1600s
English, French and Dutch expansion
Colonies and company possessions spread across several continents.
1652
Dutch Cape settlement
A lasting Dutch foothold is established in southern Africa.

1757–1830Industry, revolution and independenceIndustrialization overlaps with older empires and new independence movements.

1757
Plassey and British expansion
The East India Company’s victory becomes a major turning point in British territorial power in India.
c. 1760–1840
First Industrial Revolution
Mechanized industry develops alongside existing colonial economies.
1763
Treaty of Paris
Major French North American possessions pass to Britain.
1776–1783
American independence
The thirteen colonies declare independence and secure British recognition.
1788
British colonization in Australia
A permanent British colony is established in New South Wales.
1791–1804
Haitian Revolution
Revolution defeats French colonial rule and establishes independent Haiti.
1810s–1820s
Independence across mainland America
Most Spanish mainland rule ends; Brazil declares independence in 1822.
1830
Algeria invaded; Belgium independent
France invades Algeria while Belgium becomes an independent European state.

1858–1914Industrial-era imperial expansionCompany government, territorial conquest and competing European claims.

1858
Crown rule replaces company government
The British Crown takes over the East India Company’s governing authority in India.
Late 1800s–early 1900s
The Scramble for Africa
European conquest of Africa’s interior accelerates.
1884–1885
Berlin Conference
Imperial powers establish rules for further expansion in Africa. The conference does not draw every eventual colonial border.
1885
Congo Free State
Leopold II establishes a state under his personal rule.
1898–1899
Spanish losses in the Caribbean and Pacific
Spain loses Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, then sells other Micronesian possessions to Germany.
1908
Belgian state takes over the Congo
The Congo Free State is replaced by the Belgian Congo.

1914–1962War, mandates and decolonizationTerritories change administrators; independence movements expand.

1914–1920s
War and imperial redistribution
German colonies and former Ottoman territories are redistributed through occupations and international mandates.
1945–1949
Indonesian independence struggle
Indonesia declares independence in 1945. War against Dutch attempts to restore control precedes the 1949 transfer of sovereignty.
1947–1948
South Asian and Burmese independence
India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon become independent from Britain.
1950s–1960s
Decolonization accelerates
Independence movements end colonial rule across much of Asia and Africa.
1960
A major African independence wave
The Belgian Congo and numerous French colonies become independent.
1962
Algeria, Rwanda and Burundi
All three become independent.

1974–1999Later withdrawals and transfersIndependence, constitutional change and transfers of administration.

1974–1975
Portugal’s African empire ends
Portugal recognizes Guinea-Bissau’s independence. Angola, Mozambique, Cabo Verde, and São Tomé and Príncipe become independent in 1975.
1976
Spain completes withdrawal from Western Sahara
Withdrawal leaves an unresolved decolonization and sovereignty question.
1980
Zimbabwe and Vanuatu
Both become independent.
1986
Australia’s constitutional independence
The Australia Acts complete a major final step in independence from British parliamentary and legal authority.
1997 / 1999
Hong Kong and Macau
British administration of Hong Kong ends in 1997; Portuguese administration of Macau ends in 1999.

Words shape understanding

Control took different forms.

A colony, a trading post and a protectorate were different relationships. Compare the administrative form as well as the dates.

Colony

A territory governed under an outside power’s claimed sovereignty. Administrative arrangements and degrees of local self-government varied.

Protectorate

An arrangement in which a local ruler or government remained, while the outside power controlled important matters such as defense or foreign relations.

Company rule

A chartered commercial company exercised governmental powers, including administering territory, raising forces and negotiating treaties.

Mandate / trust territory

Administration assigned through the League of Nations or United Nations. It differed legally from annexation, although imperial powers often remained in charge.

Dominion

A self-governing state within the British imperial system. Independence developed through several constitutional steps.

Trading post / concession

A port, fort, leased area or commercial foothold. Its existence did not necessarily mean control over the surrounding country.

Two other European powers to know

Germany: controlled territories including Namibia, Cameroon, Togo, Tanganyika, Rwanda and Burundi, chiefly between the 1880s and World War I. It also held Pacific possessions and a leased territory in China.

Italy: colonized Eritrea, parts of Somalia and Libya, and occupied Ethiopia during 1936–1941.

How the pieces connect

One territory. More than one colonial history.

Sri Lanka’s coastal territories passed from Portuguese to Dutch to British administration. Britain later annexed inland Kandy in 1815. In Guyana, Dutch settlements later became British possessions. Independence and a transfer between empires were different outcomes.

Compare Portugal Compare the Netherlands Compare Britain

Read further. Check the context.

Sources + reading notes.

Sources combine historical overviews with archives, museums, parliamentary records and United Nations material. For a particular date, distinguish first contact, conquest, formal administration, declaration of independence and recognition.

Open the reference list

Prepared 18 October 2026. Historical overview; boundaries and administrative arrangements changed over time.